PCBs

PCBs are made from ‘innerlayers’ – paper-thin, but very strong and flexible sheets of fiberglass-epoxy upon which are created intricate circuits made of copper. These innerlayers are stacked and heated under pressure to produce a 3-dimensional composite. The layers are connected by “through-holes”, some thinner than a human hair. Electrical conductivity between the layers is accomplished by immersing the entire board in liquid solder inside a vacuum chamber. The solder coats the insides of the holes and allows electrons to flow between the layers. A PCB is therefore a complex 3-dimensional circuit. Modern PCBs can have as many as 30 layers. Electronic components such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, etc. are attached by soldering them to the surface of a board to produce a finished product, such as the motherboard of a computer. Discarded PCBs therefore create environmentally unfriendly scrap. By recycling PCBs, THREE RING CIRCUITS (3RC) offers consumers the chance to aid the environment, while at the same time, to acquire unique and artistic recycled circuit board products.

AMAZONITE

Minerals known as feldspars are among the most abundant on the surface of the earth. In fact, if the entire crust of the planet were ground up and analyzed, the resulting chemical formula would be nearly identical to that of a typical feldspar. Most of the minerals in the feldspar group are found as nondescript grains in igneous rocks and are boring; they are typically gray or tan colored, opaque, and not especially pretty. But some feldspars crystallize in veins and open spaces within their host rocks, and these can be very attractive indeed. Microcline, a potassium feldspar, can form large, and sometimes even translucent white, brown or greenish crystals. Rarely the greenish color deepens, even acquiring a bluish tint, and this feldspar is widely used as an ornamental stone and in jewelry under the name amazonite. The name was given in allusion to the Amazon River, despite the curious fact that although green microcline is found in Brazil none of these localities are anywhere near the Amazon! Microcline crystals of striking light and dark blue-green color are known from Colorado, while massive amazonite is found in large quantities in Canada, Russia, Madagascar, India and Africa. Amazonite is a durable and attractive material with a distinctive appearance, resulting in growing awareness and popularity. This is a stone from a common family, but which is anything but commonplace.

AMETHYST

Amethyst is the most desired, most highly prized, and most valuable of all the varieties of quartz. Considered a precious stone for centuries, amethyst displays a unique purple color that was so esteemed by the Church that amethysts became the standard jewels for the finger-rings of Bishops. Fine amethysts were once so rare that they were even considered suitable as ornaments for inclusion in the Orb and Sceptre of the British Crown Jewels. The great Roman naturalist and historian, Pliny the Elder, stated that the color of amethyst approached (but did not quite attain) the color of fine wine. The name itself was derived from the Greek word amethystos, meaning “not intoxicated”, and it was a long-held belief that the wearer of an amethyst jewel could not suffer the consequences of excessive alcohol consumption! Amethyst is found in localities throughout the world, occurring as well-formed crystals in pockets and geodes (hollow crystal-lined balls and nodules), and also as a vein-filling mineral. Vein amethyst is typically banded, with intricate angular patterns. Slices of this material are like snowflakes, with no two exactly alike. It has been said that amethyst is the all-time best seller of all colored gemstones. This may be a result of its glorious purple hue, unlike any color known within the gem kingdom.

AVENTURINE

Quartz is one of the most abundant and ubiquitous minerals in the earth’s crust and is present in a huge variety of geologic environments. Quartz is found in all shades of yellow and brown, orange, lilac, purple, and even green. Because it is so pervasive as a component of crustal rocks, quartz often incorporates other minerals during its formation. If these inclusions are platy minerals, such as mica or certain iron oxides, they may create a shimmering or glistening effect termed aventurescence.

Technically, aventurine is a rock because it is made up of more than one mineral. Aventurine is most commonly green, but it may also be orange, brown, yellow, blue or gray. A chrome-bearing variety of mica called fuchsite is the classic inclusion, and creates a silvery green or blue sheen. Oranges and browns are due to inclusions of iron oxides. Most green and blue-green aventurine comes from India. White, gray and orange material is found in Spain, Russia and Chile.

The origin of the name aventurine is the from the Italian phrase “a ventura," meaning "by chance." This relates to the chance discovery of aventurine glass or “goldstone” in the 18th century. Goldstone is clear glass containing uniformly dispersed platelets of copper. It is usually a golden brown, but may also be found in blue or green.

BLACK ONYX, CARNELIAN AND DYED AGATES

Agate, jasper, chalcedony, prase, sard, bloodstone, carnelian and many other gemstones are all the same material: quartz crystallized in the form of a microscopic fibrous and/or granular aggregate that is known by the basic term chalcedony. Common and abundant throughout the world, chalcedony and its varieties occur whenever mineral-rich solutions percolate through the earth. Staining by natural processes yields colors: yellow and brown are due to iron oxides, pink and black to manganese, green to nickel; other hues arise from other chemicals present in geologic environments.

Natural coloration tends to be random and irregular. Mass production of decorative stone objects requires colors with a much more uniform appearance. Many years ago it was discovered that some types of chalcedony, notably a grayish material found in massive quantities in Brazil, are porous and absorb liquids. If permanent coloring agents, such as aniline dyes, are employed, the chalcedony can be stained uniformly and with intense hues.

Black dye produces BLACK ONYX. Onyx is actually a term that applies to BOTH a chalcedony (quartz) and to a banded rock made of calcium carbonate. The latter is also used as an ornamental stone, and thick onyx beds found in Mexico and Pakistan have allowed for the creation of huge local carving industries. If gray chalcedony is dyed orange or red, the resulting material is called CARNELIAN. Natural carnelian does exist, and was extensively used in Roman times for signet rings and seals.

Other dye colors that are routinely used with chalcedony include blue, green, pink, white and yellow. Beads colored in this way are often sold in Hong Kong and Taiwan under somewhat misleading tradenames, e.g. BLUE AGATE, GREEN AGATE, PINK AGATE, "WHITE JADE" AND "YELLOW JADE". The quotation marks surrounding a name indicate an effort to make the material seem rarer and more "distinguished" than it really is.

CAPE AMETHYST

Amethyst was classified for centuries as a precious stone. It is found in localities throughout the world, occurring as well-formed crystals in pockets and geodes (hollow crystal-lined balls and nodules), and also as a vein-filling mineral. Vein amethyst is typically banded, with intricate angular patterns. Crystals of amethyst often form in the final stage of vein-filling crystallization. These crystal "points" can be transparent and yield magnificent faceted amethyst gemstones when cut and polished.

If the bands of amethyst in a typical vein alternate with bands of "white" quartz (quartz without the pigmentation that creates amethyst’s rich purple color), the result is a unique banded amethyst that was originally found in large quantities in the Cape Province of South Africa. This material therefore came to be known as "Cape Amethyst". It is not transparent enough to be faceted, but it is ideal for the production of beads and "nuggets", and is an especially striking material with its juxtaposed pure white and dark purple banding.

CLEAR CRYSTAL QUARTZ

Clear, colorless quartz is the proud bearer of a long tradition, evoking images of ancient Greece and its powerful Gods. Zeus and his cohorts were said to have created an indestructible ice-palace on earth, constructed of krystallos - ice frozen so hard by supernatural powers that even the full heat of the sun could not melt it! The finest clear quartz, long-known as "rock crystal", indeed resembles nothing less than pure ice and is equally limpid and devoid of any trace of color. This is actually more remarkable than it seems. The geologic environments in which minerals form are random, uncertain and almost always contaminated with myriad chemicals and impurities. Any of these impurities within the quartz structure will result in coloration and/or inclusions, destroying its pristine clarity. The very existence of rock crystal is mute testimony to the rare serenity and untroubled stability of its growth environment. In our modern, hectic world people are always searching for calmness and quietude. Think of rock crystal as nature’s perfect example of this fragile calm, and proof that it actually can and does exist.

CORAL

A gemstone is defined as a mineral that can be used for ornamental purposes. However, some materials that are not minerals have been used as gems for centuries, and so the use of the term "gem" has been expanded to include a group of non-mineral 'exceptions'. This group includes pearl, amber, shell, jet and coral – all of which are of organic, rather than of mineral origin.

Corals are tiny marine animals, called polyps, that build external skeletons for protection. These "exoskeletons" are made of calcium carbonate extracted from seawater. Calcium carbonate (also known as the minerals calcite and aragonite) is the same material that is used by other marine life to make shells and even pearls. Massive accumulations of these shells and skeletons eventually are compressed into the rock we know as limestone. Corals build their skeletons like tiny apartments and move upward as new "floors" are added below. The old skeletons can accumulate into structures of massive size, known as reefs.

Corals feed on microscopic organisms, including algae, that need sunlight to survive, and so most corals live in warm shallow seas. Corals are also sensitive to changes in their environment, and in recent years an effort has been made to protect them through environmental laws. Coral will die if the water temperature changes by more than a degree or two beyond its normal range, if there is too much algae in the water, or if there is a change in salinity. Environmental stress causes corals to lose their natural color and turn white ("coral bleaching").

Coral occurs in many colors, including white, pink, orange, red and black. Most coral used for jewelry is recovered from the Mediterranean or the Pacific Ocean near Japan and Taiwan, and forms branching "tree-like" structures. Pink coral ("angel skin") in various shades is recovered from the South China Sea. Pure red coral ("fire coral") is also found there but is very rare. The best known coral reef is the immense structure called the "Great Barrier Reef" near Australia; however the coral species that grow there do not make skeletons with properties attractive enough for use in jewelry. Pollution and overfishing by divers and jewelry producers have led to the destruction of many coral reefs around the world. Despite governmental protection efforts, the supply of gem-grade coral has significantly declined in recent years and its price has therefore risen dramatically. Coral has been valued as a jewelry material since prehistoric times, and by cultures throughout the world, and there is considerable lore about its healing and medicinal properties. Demand will therefore continue to be strong in the face of diminishing supply.

FLUORITE

Take a green, poisonous, highly reactive gas and mix it with a silvery metal. Dissolve the resulting chemical in superheated hydrothermal fluid, add traces of impurities, and run the solution through fissures and cracks deep within the earth. If you do it right, what you get is not a devil’s brew, but rather one of the loveliest and most fascinating minerals known to science – fluorite (calcium fluoride), a mineral found associated with metallic ore deposits in all parts of the world. For all its compositional simplicity, fluorite is amazingly diverse in terms of color and appearance. It is a popular collector mineral, because it forms magnificent clusters of brightly colored crystals that are almost always cubic in shape. Pure fluorite is completely colorless. Minute traces of chemical impurities cause myriad hues, creating one of the widest palettes of coloration in the mineral kingdom. Moreover, as fluorite continues to deposit out of flowing solutions within subterranean veins, the chemistry of the host solution usually is changing. This results in an intricate pattern of banding, like that of tree rings, that reveals a time-line history of the growth environment. The coloration and detail of this banding can be so distinctive that it even allows correlation between events in different, far-removed portions of an ore deposit! Fluorite that deposits for a long time in a mineral vein without chemical changes may produce massive formations of a single color. This monochromatic version of fluorite, while perhaps not as common as the banded variety, reflects the more abundant natural coloring agents: iron (producing green fluorite) and manganese (producing lavender fluorite). Less abundant chromophores yield violet, yellow, orange, pink, blue and intermediate shades. When these various hues are mixed together the material has come to be known as rainbow fluorite. This mineral is well known from so many localities that experienced collectors can even identify a fluorite specimen’s origin from the distinctive shapes and colors of its crystals. Multi-colored fluorite is chiefly known from China, but South American localities are now competing with the Chinese for the title of "most colorful banding". Fluorite mined in England, known locally as "Blue John" and notable for its intricate patterns in bands of blue, violet and purple, was fashioned for centuries into useful and decorative objects. But even at this venerable locality fluorite was actually a by-product of lead mining. Indeed this amazingly beautiful mineral, long considered an industrial commodity, is finally coming into its own as a decorative material worthy of demand for its own merits.

FOSSIL STONE AND MARBLE

Although life has been present on earth for as much as 2 billion years, complex multi-cellular organisms did not appear until about halfway through this immense period of time. Life remained confined to the oceans until only about 400 million years ago. During eons of geologic time, marine organisms developed hard external shells for protection and defense. When the animals, died, these shells sank slowly to the bottom of the sea and accumulated into enormously thick beds, which eventually compressed into rock. Limestone, one of the most abundant of all sedimentary rocks on earth, was created in this way. It is composed entirely of calcium carbonate, the mineral that is found as a constituent of marine shells.

Often these depositing sediments contain a mixture of both large and microscopic shells. The compressed rock may be fine and dense and still display the compressed remains of the larger animals, preserved as clear impressions. More frequently, the limestone contains scattered bits of animal shells, sometimes in a chaotic swirl, and the rock itself may be stained by chemical impurities to shades of pink, brown or green.

In many parts of the world, mountain-building processes have been at work for millennia. These immense geological forces, through a process known as metamorphism (literally, "change of form") convert existing rocks into new types called metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are characterized by swirls, bent and twisted layers, fissures and other signs of the huge pressures at work. Metamorphosed limestone is called marble. The composition has not changed in the conversion from limestone to marble, but the new rock has re-crystallized and the carbonate grains have become much finer. Impurities show up as streaks and bands, sometimes in a wide range of colors. Marbles are extremely strong rocks that are found all over the world in a fantastic array of colors and patterns, which is why they have become so popular as building materials.

HEMATITE

The Stone Age was the time of the creation of myths. Science did not exist; superstition allowed primitive humanity to deal with the mysteries of reality. The power of stones reigned supreme at the core of man’s belief in supernatural powers - the power to heal; the power to calm; the power to know. It was a time of omnipotent deities, of Gods that hovered as pinpoints of light in the night sky, and of objects, given to mankind by design or accident, that might enable survival in such a frightening and hostile environment. A red stone placed against a bleeding wound might be observed to staunch the flow of blood. A clear stone might feel comfortingly cool against the skin on a hot summer day. A kidney-shaped stream-worn green pebble might cure a stomach-ache if pressed against the groin. Today we call such beliefs "sympathetic magic". At one time, however, they were humanity’s medical arsenal. Hematite, a dark red, black or silvery mineral (depending on its state of crystallization) was always considered a potent curative agent. Its name is derived from the same linguistic root as hemoglobin, the substance that makes our blood red. Some forms of hematite actually to have the styptic ability to absorb liquid, allowing primitive cultures to observe the amazing phenomenon of a piece of hematite actually stopping the flow of blood from a wound. An oxide of iron, hematite is also one of nature's most important pigments (and perhaps mankind’s first makeup and warpaint!), responsible with other iron oxides and hydroxides for the red, orange and yellow hues that abound in rocks and make scenery so attractive. Massive hematite can be polished to a bright finish, and has a black, sub-metallic appearance. It can be used most effectively in combination with stones of other colors to create striking patterns and designs.

HOWLITE

Gemstone pop quiz: we have in hand a collection of slabs of dense, pure white stone, with crystallization so fine and compact that individual grains cannot be seen without magnification. The material is not extremely hard, but is tough and durable, and can be polished to a rich luster. Some of the slabs display an intricate network of thin black veining. If you suggested that the stone is marble, you are wrong – but it was a good guess! The correct answer is howlite, a somewhat rare borosilicate that is mainly known from an obscure locality called Tick Canyon in California, where the material occurs in unique abundance. Usually collected as nodules of varying size, California howlite is extremely uniform, with a porcelain-like appearance, and an unvarying milk-white color often accented with black spiderweb patterns. Howlite is sufficiently porous to accept a variety of coloring agents, and dyed howlite (generally blue, creating an extremely convincing turquoise substitute) is a popular lapidary material. Howlite is a lovely and distinctive material. Once you have seen it, you will never again confuse it with marble!

IVORY

History
Ivory has been considered a rare and valuable material for most of human history. Ivory use in art dates back to prehistoric times, when representations of animals were incised on tusks. Objects in ivory were created in ancient Egypt, Assyria, Crete, Mycenae, Greece, and Italy, and there are many biblical references to its use at least from the time of Solomon. The Romans made lavish use of ivory in furniture, implements of war, and decorative items. Liturgical objects, book covers, and small statues were made in great numbers from early Christian times and ivory carving was practiced both in W Europe and in the Byzantine Empire. In India, ivory carving and turning has been done from ancient times. In China and Japan ivory has been used for inlay and small objects, especially for statues and carvings of small size and great precision and beauty of detail. In the last few centuries in Europe and North America, ivory has been employed to decorate furniture, for small statues, piano keys, and occasionally as a surface for miniature paintings.

Legal Status
African elephants have been hunted for centuries. However, the exploitation of elephant herds on a truly massive scale only began in the 1970s. The huge increase that occurred during the 1970s was the result of automatic weapons availability and widespread government corruption in many exporting countries; this resulted in the decimation of elephant populations across Africa. Threatened with extinction, the elephant (including the Asian species, elephant maximus, and African species, loxodonta Africana) was theoretically protected from international trade by their listing on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1989. Since the imposition of the ban, the average annual number of elephants killed by poaching has declined from 3,500 elephants per year in Kenya in the early 1980s, to about 50 in 1993. Hong Kong, Japan and Taiwan were the primary consumers of raw ivory from 1979 to 1987. The industries that relied on ivory subsequently turned to other materials to maintain production levels.

Legally imported Pre-Ban ivory has become an extremely scarce commodity. ALL THE IVORY used in Beadles designs was purchased in years prior to the 1989 CITES ban. At that time Hong Kong was the world’s largest user of ivory, and local cutters produced an amazing variety of ivory bead shapes, including round, fluted, twisted, gold-inlaid and carved items. The use of such beads adds an elegant and distinctive look to Beadles designs. The availability of such irreplaceable ivory components, when mixed with fine gemstone beads, has allowed for the creation of necklaces that are truly unique and, in some cases, one-of-a-kind creations.

What Is Ivory?
Ivory is the teeth of animals. "True" ivory comes from elephants and mammoths and is similar to bone and antlers. Ivory has no blood vessel system, and is therefore more dense than bone. The most commonly found ivories come from the elephant, walrus, sperm whale, and hornbill. It is possible to tell these ivories apart because they are structurally different.

Elephant Ivory includes ivory from the tusks of both Indian and African elephants, as well as ivory from mammoths and mastodons. This ivory is made up of a hard, dense tissue called dentin; unlike teeth, elephant tusks do not have an enamel coating. Up to one-half of an elephant tusk is hollow. Growth occurs in layers - you can see these concentric oval growth lines (called the Lines of Owen) in cross section. If you cut ivory lengthwise, these lines appear triangular and become wavy and start to display milky areas between them as you get closer to the outside of the tusk. Unique to elephant ivory are the Lines of Retzius. These fine intersecting lines are visible in cross section, and give an “engine-turned” effect (intersecting lines with a diamond shape between them). Generally, elephant ivory has a fine, even grain and is easily carved in all directions. It can be thinly cut (i.e. for piano keys), and can be more delicately carved than bone. Ivory is often painted or stained, dyed, and even gilded.

Other ivories come from the tusks and teeth of the hippopotamus, walrus, and sperm whale, and also the bill of the hornbill. Hippo ivory is denser than elephant ivory, harder to carve, and has a finer grain. There is none of the "engine turned" effect in cross section; rather, hippo ivory has concentric rings in cross section. Walrus ivory comes from the upper canines of the walrus and is used primarily for small objects. Thirty teeth of the sperm whale, each up to 8" long and 3" across and hollow for the first half of its length, can also be used for ivory. Sperm whale ivory is easily confused with walrus ivory, as both have two distinct layers. The inner layer of sperm whale ivory, however, is much larger. Hornbill ivory comes from the casque of the Helmeted Hornbill, a bird native to the East Indies. This "horn" is hard and fine-textured; used to make small objects such as buckles and brooches, it is highly valued by the Chinese. The source of vegetable ivory is the inner seed of the South American ivory palm, and is thus completely made of cellulose. These seeds are the size and shape of a small hen's egg, are very hard, and are solid all the way through. Vegetable ivory is smooth, takes a good polish, easily absorbs dyes, and is relatively inexpensive. It is used for small items only, such as dice and buttons. Since about WWII, vegetable ivory has been largely replaced by plastics.

Since 1865 celluloid has been used as an excellent ivory substitute. Casein has also been used. Both grain patterns and the “engine turned” effect are added -- in general, the patterns of these are very regular in the fakes, and more irregular in the real thing. In instances of very good imitations (i.e. using celluloid), chemical tests are required to tell real ivory and the fakes apart.

Bone is a viable ivory substitute, and is recovered from a variety of animals. Buffalo horn has also been widely used in place of ivory for carvings, beads and decorative objects.

JADE

While archaeology recognizes the Bronze Age and the Iron Age as periods of emerging human technology, the term "Stone Age" has the connotation of a primitive culture devoid of tools and sophistication. The fallacy of this belief is proven by the amazing artistry of pre-Colombian jade carvings that are more than 3,000 years old! It is known that jade was used in ritual and ceremony in China nearly 4,000 years ago, and it is likely that more primitive cultures made tools out of jade several millennia earlier still. Known to the Chinese as yu, the "Stone of Heaven", jade was actually introduced into Europe by Spanish conquistadors returning from Central America, their ships laden with stolen treasure. The Aztecs revered jade, and its use was reserved for royalty and high officials. The Chinese dynasties had similar views. Both cultures stood in awe of the stone's supposed curative powers, beliefs derived from the irregular shape of water-worn jade pebbles that typically resemble internal human organs, such as kidneys. The Spanish term, piedra de hijada ("stone of the loins") gave rise to the word "jade". European academics, steeped in the traditions of Latin scholarship, translated this descriptive phrase as lapis nephriticus ("kidney stone"), which eventually gave rise to the word "nephrite". The word jade actually refers to a family of 2 distinct minerals, jadeite and nephrite, that have totally different properties, physical structures and geologic origins. Jadeite is rarer, denser and slightly harder than nephrite, and occurs in a wider range of colors (ALL caused by traces of chemical impurities). But nephrite is perhaps the toughest of all gemstone materials, the geological equivalent of leather. An anvil made of nephrite would serve as well or better than one made of iron. Tiles made of jade wear better than porcelain and could be used in virtually any application.

LAPIS LAZULI

IMAGINE….a midnight sky that is velvety, dark blue - not black. Imagine stars – not white, but the color of pure gold. Add a few scattered, lazy clouds. This vision is what you see when you stare into the depths of the finest lapis lazuli. Revered by ancient civilizations and prized more highly than gold, lapis has an unrivaled and unbroken record as a precious commodity that has endured more than 7,000 years. Ancient caravan routes have been traced across the middle east from the original sources in Afghanistan across the kingdoms of Mesopotamia and Assyria to the royal courts of Sumer and Egypt. Lapis was used in jewelry, regal objects and the most sacred of religious rituals; it was even a component of the Breastplate of the High Priest, one of 12 stones symbolically representing the ancient tribes of Israel. Lapis is actually not a mineral, but a rock, made up of a collection of minerals that give it texture and variety. The gold flecks are the mineral pyrite (sometimes known as "fools' gold") and the white spots are calcite. The finest lapis comes from Afghanistan but more recent finds have been made in such unlikely places as Chile, Colorado and Siberia. The color of lapis is so intense, vibrant and luminous that the stone even found its way into great art. The Dutch painter, Vermeer, is noted for a unique blue color that bears his name. This color was achieved by adding finely ground lapis to the pigment. No other coloring agent produces this hue, and no other artist has used this technique ever since.

MALACHITE

The Hermitage in St. Petersburg is considered one of the finest museums of art and sculpture in the world. Richer in artistic treasures than the Louvre or British Museum, the Hermitage boasts the amazing collections of the Russian Czars and features columns, pillars, walls, floors and objects made of decorative stones of all kinds. Included in the collection are entire place settings made of rich, velvety green material that displays banding, bulls-eye circles and flower-like patterns in lush and distinctive shades, all polished to a gleaming finish. The same stone is found in wall tiles, inlaid columns and a variety of decorative and functional objects. Once considered so precious that only royalty could afford it, this amazing stone called MALACHITE is now available for all to enjoy, thanks to immense deposits discovered in Zaire. Malachite is a characteristic mineral of copper deposits. But only in a few spots on earth does this mineral occur in masses that are compact, thick and sturdy enough to allow production of carvings, plates and tiles. The deposits of malachite in the Urals provided the Russian artisans with an ample supply of this gorgeous and unique stone.

MOTHER OF PEARL

Gemstones are usually viewed as minerals that have ornamental value. While minerals are rigorously defined as naturally occurring inorganic substances, there are a few organic materials that are so beautiful, and historically have been so highly prized by mankind, that they are allowed to defy the scientific definition and are nonetheless considered "precious gems". Chief among these is the pearl, an object of unique beauty and ethereal luster, a god-like gift emerging as if by a miracle from the innards of a "lowly" mollusk. Mollusks are perhaps not all that lowly, having been around for more than 530 million years and managing to find homes in virtually every ecologic niche on the planet. In fact, the phylum mollusca is the second largest in the animal kingdom! These little creatures secrete nacre, a substance made up of tiny crystals of aragonite, that forms a smooth, comfortable lining for the innermost portions of the mollusk shell. This layer of nacre, or mother-of-pearl, protects the delicate organs of the growing mollusk, and continues to expand in size and thickness throughout the creature’s life. If a nasty bit of sand happens to invade the mollusk’s peaceful concave home, nacre is repeatedly secreted onto it until the particle is covered in a smooth, non-irritating capsule. Such a concretion is known as a pearl. Pearls are found in a huge range of colors, and mother-of-pearl can be light or dark colored depending on the mollusk species from which it comes. Mother-of-pearl is truly an amazing bargain. Despite its modest price, it comes from the same source, and is made of the same material, as one of nature’s loveliest, rarest, and costliest gems.

OBSIDIAN

The hunter's arrow flies straight and true, providing sustenance for yet another generation of Native American plains Indians. The arrowhead is black as coal and sharp as glass, and its manufacture is an art form developed over hundreds of thousands of years, practically defining the evolution of mankind as a maker of tools. The arrowhead is as sharp as glass because it is glass – black obsidian, a material spewed out by volcanoes since the earth was new and one of humanity’s oldest and most trusted resources. The composition of obsidian is identical to that of basalt, a dense black rock used throughout the world in road beds and construction. The individual mineral crystals in basalt can easily be seen with a hand lens, and the rock has a fine "grain" structure due to rapid cooling. But obsidian has no crystals. It formed when floods of molten rock poured out onto the earth (or into the ocean) during a volcanic eruption and cooled so quickly that mineral crystals did not even have a chance to form. Modern window glass is made in similar fashion (from quartz sand), under more controlled conditions of temperature and chemistry. Black obsidian can actually be quite transparent in thin slices, but in chunks and masses it looks much like hard coal - lustrous and beautiful, with just a tantalizing hint of the clarity that lies within. Humanity has indeed evolved as a toolmaker. In carvings and jewelry, and as slabs and decorative tiles, obsidian has come a long way…. from arrowheads, to works of fine art.

PICTURE JASPER

Rolling hills covered by green forests, fading into a distant blue haze; stands of pine trees reflecting their images into the quiet waters of a secluded lake; verdant bushes spreading their leaves toward a distant sun; all these images may sound like Kodak moments, but they are images captured in stone, not film. Jasper is the term generally used to describe finely crystalline quartz material stained by mineral oxides in random patterns, as opposed to the regular banding that typically defines agate. Agate, jasper, chalcedony, prase, sard, bloodstone, carnelian and many other venerable and historic gemstones are all the same material: quartz crystallized in the form of a microscopic fibrous and/or granular aggregate that is known by the basic term chalcedony. Common and abundant throughout the world, chalcedony and its varieties occur whenever mineral-rich solutions percolate through the earth. These ubiquitous solutions fill veins, trickle through open spaces, and generally leave mementos of their visit in the form of layers of quartz. Staining produces coloration: yellow and brown are due to iron oxides, pink and black to manganese, green to nickel; other hues arise from other chemicals, in glorious profusion. The names given to these materials are somewhat arbitrary. Some date back to Biblical times. SARD is a reddish-orange chalcedony with no patterning; a more translucent variety known as CARNELIAN was extensively used in Roman times for signet rings and seals. PRASE is an opaque to slightly translucent dark green material. Add a dusting of reddish iron oxide speckles and spots and we have BLOODSTONE. The term AGATE is generally applied to chalcedony that displays regular banding, either in layers (BANDED AGATE), concentric circles (FORTIFICATION AGATE), or totally irregular jumbles and swirls (CRAZY LACE AGATE).

Chalcedonies that display their colors in a more whimsical fashion are lumped all together into the family known as JASPER. There is essentially no limit to the panorama of colors and images that are evident among the world’s jaspers; dozens of varieties have been named, and new ones are being unearthed all the time. Since humans tend to anthropomorphize all sorts of things, it is not surprising that random patterns in stone are often described in terms relevant to people. Chalcedony with streaks and blobs that seem to resemble mountains, hills, trees and clouds is called SCENIC JASPER (or agate); PICTURE JASPER is the term generally used for a dense yellow-brown jasper that displays an infinity of endlessly-flowing black-rimmed hills, separated by tan valleys that are populated with scattered black shrubs. The color pattern in reddish SNAKE SKIN JASPER looks like…. snake skin! RAINBOW JASPER displays a colorful mixture of hues in a totally random and endlessly varying mixture of bands, dots and swirls. LEOPARD SKIN JASPER contains spherules, scattered individual balls of concentrically banded jasper within a featureless opaque host. The spherules are brownish in tone with a pale core and black rim. The effect resembles the spotted pattern of a leopard’s skin. Two variations of this material are available: one has a distinctly pinkish tone, and the other is predominantly yellowish.

BRECCIATED JASPER is so named because of its resemblance to a rock known as breccia, which consists of angular and jagged rock fragments within a fine-grained uniform host material. Brecciated jaspers are often reddish-brown in color and come in an amazingly wide range of patterns. RED JASPER is essentially nothing more or less than the sard of antiquity, sometimes with inclusions in other colors and often crosscut by later-formed silica veins. It is brick-red, smooth and featureless, an ideal material for basic ornamentation and construction.

All the jaspers share the advantage of extremely fine grain size, making them tough and durable, resistant to damage, and easy to cut and polish. Since they are made of silica (quartz) they are also hard and resistant to scratching by the particles commonly found riding the atmosphere of our cities. There seems never to be an end to the abundance of new jaspers, from new localities, with new colors and patterns….and, of course, new names!

PORCELAIN TILES ("Shards")

Porcelain has been made in China for centuries. Much of it is so distinctive that its period of origin can be determined by typical characteristics of color and images. Pottery is fragile and the vast majority of old porcelain objects have suffered the ravages of time. Chinese artisans in recent years have rescued much of this broken material, shaped the broken pieces ("shards") with smooth edges, and wrapped the fragments in a silver alloy for strength and security. Some shards are used as free-standing decorative panels; others are crafted as tops of ornamental metal boxes. Most are fashioned as jewelry pendants with metal wire-wrapped edges. The most popular shards come from two periods of Chinese history. Blue and white porcelain is characteristic of the MING DYNASTY = 1368-1644. These objects are centuries old and true antiquities. The most typical multi-colored shards date from the CH'ING (QING) DYNASTY = 1644-1912. These fragments are not as old as Ming Dynasty porcelain, but are still unquestionably antiques. No two shards are exactly alike.

RHODONITE

Pink is a color usually associated with softness and gentility. Pink is the color of baby girls and chiffon dresses, of cotton candy and sunset clouds. But since rules are proven by exceptions, it should not be surprising to discover the existence of rhodonite. There is nothing soft and delicate about this stone! Here we have bold pink…in-your-face pink…a robust rose-pink hue mottled and streaked with intricate black cobwebs, veined with hard lines and strong patterns. Rhodonite, after all, is a silicate, and silicates collectively are among the harder and tougher of mineral species. Rhodonite derives its color from the atoms of manganese that represent one of its essential components. Although this mineral forms excellent crystals in various localities, it is chiefly known as a dense, solid, massive material, excellent for carvings, cabochons and tiles. South Africa, Russia, Australia and Brazil are notable among world sources. Rhodonite can occur as a solid pink material free of black manganese oxide inclusions, but more often it forms a dense, almost granular aggregate displaying infinitely varying black patterns. Rarely it is transparent, and can be faceted into extremely desirable collector gemstones. Though varying in saturation from light to dark, the hue of rhodonite is always constant – pink.

ROSE QUARTZ

Quartz is one of the most abundant and ubiquitous minerals in the earth’s crust and is present in a huge variety of geologic environments. It is therefore uniquely susceptible to contamination by the endless profusion of chemicals that circulate in the hidden recesses of our active planet. Quartz is found in all shades of yellow and brown, orange, lilac, purple, and even green. Pink turns out to be a bit of a rarity, and the causes of its coloration somewhat obscure. Rose quartz may be an oddity, but happily where it does occur it is found in large masses that are suitable for cutting into decorative and functional objects. Long used for carvings, ashtrays, bookends and similar massive artifacts, the finest rose quartz can also be used in jewelry. Although never entirely free of minute fissures and growth imperfections, rose quartz nevertheless can be cohesive, strong and durable. Ranging in hue from pale pink to a deep rose color, this lovely quartz variety is mined in Brazil, Madagascar, Russia and India. It is a welcome and useful addition to the amazing palette of crystalline quartz varieties.

SERPENTINE ("NEW JADE")

Almost a hero…almost rich…almost famous; normally we might consider these to be less than ideal situations. But in the case of almost… jade, the prospect actually has a certain allure, and a definite tinge of glamour! Serpentine is a name given to a family of minerals, nearly all of which occur in regions where earth pressures have been strong enough to squeeze and bend entire mountain ranges like putty in a giant’s fist. Under these extreme conditions minerals are forced to break down into basic chemical components and re-crystallize. The new, more stable minerals are generally dense, compact materials that are often tough and durable as well. The ultimate example of this process of reconstruction under pressure is jade. An intermediate stage of the same process results in serpentines, one of which – called bowenite – so resembles true jade that it is frequently mistaken for its more illustrious cousin. Bowenite, often called "new jade", is found in Afghanistan, Kashmire (N. India), New Zealand and China. Of all the serpentine minerals bowenite has the best hardness and translucency. Though not quite as tough as true jade, "new jade" is nonetheless a durable and attractive alternative.

SODALITE

Like its famous cousin, lapis lazuli, sodalite is a rich and lustrous dark Royal blue stone ideal for use in jewelry and ornamentation. Sodalite, in fact, is one of the minerals that make up the rock known as lapis, and is partially responsible for the latter’s fine blue coloration. A unique advantage of sodalite is its uniformity, allowing it to be widely employed in beads and as slabs for clock cases and inlay work. Occurences include India, S. Africa and Brazil. It is also well known from Canada, where its discovery at the time of a royal visit inspired the creation of the term "princess blue". Sodalite is compact, fairly hard and typically free of mineral inclusions. Unlike lapis, which normally contains flecks of golden pyrite and streaks of white calcite, sodalite tends to present a solid, dense mass of pure color, making it perfect for application in beads, slabs and tiles.

TIGEREYE

The Bengal tiger is a ferocious and dangerous creature. Its golden eyes gleam with hidden strength and unpredictable desires. In some ways it is appropriate that this glorious beast has served as the inspiration for the name of a popular and beautiful ornamental stone….appropriate, because tigereye is, like a caged animal, the "tamed" version of a potential killer: asbestos. Actually, the asbestos variety, called crocidolite, that creates the fibrous appearance of tigereye totally disappeared eons ago, replaced molecule by molecule with hard and durable silica. A trace of iron oxide creates a brownish color. Tigereye is therefore a mineralized "pseudomorph" that, while made of completely harmless quartz, retains the fibrous structure of the asbestos it has replaced. Light reflecting from these fibers creates a "sheen" resembling the luster of satin; just like a folded piece of shiny fabric, the appearance of the stone varies with the position of the incident light, creating alternating bands of lustrous yellow and silky brown. Tigereye, unlike asbestos, is hard and tough, suitable for beads, carvings, jewelry, ornamental objects and tiles.

TURQUOISE

The Pharaohs of ancient Egypt, sophisticated connoisseurs of art and treasure, considered turquoise to be the "Stone of Heaven". The original sources in the Sinai desert provided the ancient world with blue and blue-green turquoise for jewelry and royal objects 4,000 years before the Christian era. Much later humanity’s search for copper, and the excavation of vast areas near deposits of this metal, revealed additional sources for the once precious blue commodity whose name was created (in more recent times) based on its availability via trade routes through Turkey. Modern sources for turquoise include Chile, the U.S, (mainly Arizona and Nevada) and Australia. Iran, the original source of ancient times, also remains an important supplier, since some of the world’s finest turquoise is produced in Chorassan province in the northeastern part of the country. Copper in turquoise produces a pure blue coloration; a trace of iron gives a greenish tinge. Seldom is turquoise mined in very large homogeneous masses. Rather, it tends to occur in veins and nodules attached to rock matrix. The Pharaohs of Egypt worshipped turquoise for its sensual beauty and great rarity. Today we are fortunate to simply purchase and enjoy this ancient stone of mystery and allure.

© JOEL E. AREM 2007